Table 2 Outcome measures

Primary

Insulin sensitivity

72 hours and 96 hours post exercise

• HOMA2 computer model for insulin sensitivity (IR, %S) [53]

• HOMA2 computer model for beta cell function (%Beta)

Glucose homeostasis

Fasting glucose

Glycated hemoglobin [53]

Insulin

C-peptide levels

Diabetic medication inventory and dosages

Meal tolerance test

Secondary

Cardiovascular health

Resting heart rate variability and pulse wave velocity (arterial stiffness)

24-hour ambulatory blood pressure

Postural blood pressure

Ankle brachial blood pressure index

Lipid metabolism

Total cholesterol

Low/High-density cholesterol

Triglycerides

Basal fat oxidation via indirect calorimetry

Intramuscular lipid content

Muscle morphology and metabolism

Muscle tissue biopsy (vastus lateralis) [54]

• Glucose transporter type 4 receptor protein

• Intramuscular insulin-like growth factor 1

• Glycogen content

• Muscle fiber cross-sectional area

• Muscle fibrertyping

Adipokines and Inflammatory markers

Adipose tissue biopsy [54]

• TNF-α

• Interleukin-6

• High molecular weight adiponectin

• C-Jun N-terminal kinase

• Serum C-reactive protein [55]

Body composition [53]

Bioelectrical impedance analysis

• Skeletal muscle mass, skeletal muscle mass index

• Fat free mass

• Fat mass

• Body fat percentage

Computed tomography scan

• Abdominal and thigh girth, sagittal diameter

• Abdominal total, visceral and subcutaneous fat area

• Thigh total, intramuscular and subcutaneous fat area and muscle density (intramuscular lipid index)

• Thigh muscle area

Waist circumference

Body mass index

Exercise capacity and Functional status

Exercise stress test (maximal treadmill test with indirect calorimetry)

• Peak aerobic capacity

• Anaerobic threshold

• Oxygen uptake efficiency slope

• Heart rate recovery

Muscle strength, power and endurance

Habitual and maximal gait speed

Static and dynamic balance

Chair stand and stair climb power

Neuropsychological profile

Geriatric Depression Scale

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index

Ewart’s Self-efficacy Scale

Cognitive function

• Mini Mental State Exam

• Word List Recognition and Recall

• Trail Making A and B

Actigraph sleep architecture over 7 days

• Total time in/out of bed

• Sleep latency, sleep efficiency

• Total time asleep

• Number of awakenings

Health-related quality of life

Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey

Nutritional intake

Food frequency questionnaire of Bloch over past 4 months

Energy expenditure

Resting metabolic rate via indirect calorimetry

Habitual physical activity and sedentary behaviour via Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly

Actigraph accelerometers over 7 days

• Waking hours

• Wear time

• Total sedentary time, mean sedentary time, median sedentary time

• Percentage of time spent in sedentary (1 MET), light (<3 MET), moderate (3–6 MET) and vigorous (>6 MET) activity

• Total energy expenditure spent in sedentary (1 MET), light (<3 MET), moderate (3–6 MET) and vigorous (>6 MET) activity

• Physical activity level (PAL score)