Figure 1

Overview of potential inflammatory mechanisms that are involved in the development of chronic heart failure (CHF). Various stimuli, including autoimmunity, chronic infections, mechanical overload, ischaemia and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol, may induce production of inflammatory cytokines in CHF. Inflammatory cytokines may further negatively influence contractility and contribute to the remodelling process in the failing myocardium (e.g. hypertrophy and apoptosis of cardiomyocytes), resulting in a cardiomyopathy-like phenotype with cardiac dilatation and fibrosis. IL=interleukin; MCP=monocyte chemoattractant protein; TNF=tumour necrosis factor.