Table 3 Known complications associated with ablative procedures in Catheter Ablation versus Thoracoscopic Surgical Ablation in Long Standing Persistent Atrial Fibrillation study

Bruising, hematoma, vascular injury not requiring intervention

Vascular complications requiring blood transfusion or intervention

Pericardial/pleural effusion (observation only)

Symptomatic pericardial/pleural effusion or requiring intervention

Broken rib

Stroke/transient ischemic attack

Pneumothorax requiring observation

Pneumothorax requiring chest drain

Infection (i.e., pneumonia)

Empyema

Pulmonary oedema

Myocardial infarction

Temporary phrenic nerve damage

Permanent phrenic nerve damage

Pain near surgical sites

Pulmonary vein stenosis (> 50% reduction in diameter from baseline)

Requirement to insert PPM (with or without prior conduction tissue damage)

Cardiac trauma requiring surgical intervention

Radiation-induced skin damage

Oesophageal atrial fistula

Death