Table 1 Eligibility criteria

- Experience moderate to severe pain (minimum of 5/10 on a numerical rating scale (NRS)) in at least 90 % of attempted sexual intercourse

- Pain limited to the vestibule during vaginal intercourse and during activities exerting pressure on the vestibule (tampon insertion, tight jeans or pants, cycling, horseback riding)

- Presence of provoked vestibulodynia (PVD) for at least 6 months and diagnosed according to the standardized gynecological examination protocol by one of our staff gynecologists

- Have a stable sexual partner (sexual activity should include some attempted vaginal penetrations in order to evaluate pain intensity)

- Urogynecological conditions (e.g., active urinary tract or vaginal infection or in the last 3 months, etc.) and other pelvic pathology associated with pelvic pain (e.g., deep dyspareunia)

- Have given birth in the last year and breast feeding

- Anterior vulvar or vaginal surgery

- Refusal to refrain from other treatments 1 month prior to first treatment study until the last 3-month follow-up assessment

- Contraindications to transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) (e.g., metallic implant in or near the skull, history of epilepsy, pacemaker)

- Previously received tDCS treatment