Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Participant plans to continue enrollment in health plan

Between 18 and 70 years of age

At least one primary care visit for back pain within the past 3–12 months

Non-specific, uncomplicated low back pain, i.e., ICD-9 codes:

   724.2 Lumbago

   724.5 Backache, unspecified

   724.8 Other symptoms referable to back

   846.0-9 Sprains and strains, sacroiliac

   847.2 Sprains and strains, lumbar

   847.3 Sprains and strains, sacral

   847.9 Sprains and strains, unspecified site of the back

Physician willing to have patients included in the study

Lives within 45 minutes travel time from study clinic

Exclusion criteria

Previous acupuncture for any reason

Low back pain lasting less than 3 months

Mild symptoms (less than 3 on 0 to 10 pain bothersomeness scale)

Specific diseases that could be cause of back pain (metastatic cancer, discitis, herniated disc, vertebral fracture, spinal infection, osteitis condensans ilii, severe or progressive scoliosis, spinal stenosis, spondylolisthesis, ankylosing spondylitis)

Complicated back problems (sciatica, back surgery in prior 3 years)

Other disabling chronic conditions that might confound treatment effects or interpretation of data (e.g., disabling heart or lung disease, diabetic neuropathy, active hepatitis, fibromyalgia, rheumatoid arthritis)

Acupuncture contraindicated or safety not confirmed (clotting disorders, on anticoagulant therapy, heart pacemaker, pregnancy, seizure disorder)

Medico-legal issues (seeking or receiving compensation/litigation for back pain)

Conditions possibly making consenting or treatment difficult (paralysis, inability to lie prone for 45 minutes, major psychoses, dementia, scheduling conflicts, severe vision or hearing problems, lack of transportation, unable to read or speak English)