Table 1 Inclusion criteria

18 to 64 years old

Chronic low back pain in older adults is more likely to have specific causes (e.g., spinal canal stenosis)

Current non-specific low back pain persisting ≥12 weeks

Condition studied is specifically chronic

Mean low back pain intensity for the previous week ≥4 on a 0 to 10 numerical rating scale (0 = no pain to 10 = worst possible pain)

Back pain severe enough to detect improvement and prevent against floor effects

English fluency sufficient to follow treatment instructions and answer survey questions

Fully informed consent and data collection

Willingness to list comprehensive contact information for at least one (preferably two) friend, family member, or work colleague who will always know how to contact the participant

Minimize loss to follow-up