Table 1 Comparison of the key principles and expected training outcomes of error-based learning and errorless learning

Training approach and model

Top-down with an internal focus (person learns to monitor and correct their own errors)

Bottom-up with an external focus (therapist monitors and eliminates the person’s errors)

Target of intervention

Increased awareness of deficits and the capacity to anticipate, self-monitor and self-regulate errors

Error-free performance on successive parts of the task through observing and practicing correct actions

Mechanisms (function of errors in learning)

A structured opportunity to make and self-identify errors with therapist’s feedback to realize the functional significance of errors, and practice of self-initiated strategies (stop, check and correct) over sessions

The therapist prevents errors during the learning acquisition phase by modeling each step and the person practices only correct responses over sessions to support habit formation

Training outcomes (pre vs post)

Reduced errors on the training task, generalization of self-regulation skills to untrained tasks (reduced errors and improved broader behavioral competency) and greater awareness of deficits

Reduced errors on the training task, minimal change in awareness, lack of generalization of self-regulation skills to untrained tasks (minimal change in errors and broader behavioral competency)