Table 1 Inflammatory mediators associated with intra-abdominal sepsis or injury, including abdominal surgery, among studies of animals or humans

CRP

A serum marker of sepsis that increases in concentration in plasma following abdominal surgery

[20–22]

Haptoglobulin

Elevated expression in blood leukocytes following severe blunt trauma

[23]

IL-1ra

Elevated in plasma following trauma; elevated expression in blood leukocytes following severe blunt trauma

[23, 24]

IL-6

Potent inflammatory mediator and marker of sepsis; elevated levels correlate with length of hospital stay, complications, and mortality among patients with intra-abdominal sepsis; elevated levels in peritoneal fluid in a porcine model of intra-abdominal sepsis; elevated plasma/serum levels following abdominal surgery; elevated plasma levels following severe trauma associate with injury severity, development of organ dysfunction, and poor outcomes, including mortality

[21–23, 25–28, 44–50]

IL-8

Potent neutrophil chemoattractant; elevated expression in blood leukocytes following severe blunt trauma

[23, 29]

IL-10

Elevated serum levels during intra-abdominal sepsis; blocks pro-inflammatory cytokine release; elevated after abdominal surgery

[30–32]

IL-15

Elevated levels in serum correlate with organ dysfunction and poor patient prognosis

[33]

IL-17

Potent pro-inflammatory mediator; promotes neutrophil recruitment to the peritoneal cavity and enhanced bacterial clearance in a mouse model of intra-abdominal sepsis; elevated plasma levels in select patients following severe trauma

[28, 34, 35]

IL-22

Elevated serum levels during intra-abdominal sepsis

[30]

IL-33

Mediates neutrophil recruitment to peritoneum; promotes bacterial clearance and reduces mortality in a mouse model of intra-abdominal sepsis

[36]

MCP-1 (CCL2)

Potent monocyte chemoattractant; serum levels elevated in a rat model of intra-abdominal sepsis; elevated expression in blood leukocytes following severe blunt trauma

[23, 37]

M-CSF

Elevated in plasma following trauma

[24]

MIF

Present early in sepsis and remains elevated for a prolonged time period; significantly higher levels in non-survivors of sepsis compared to survivors; MIF neutralization reduces mortality in a mouse model of intra-abdominal sepsis

[38, 39]

PDGF

Elevated in plasma following trauma

[24]

Procalcitonin

Marker of infectious complications following abdominal surgery and negatively associated with survival; elevated after abdominal surgery

[32, 40]

TNF-α

Serum levels elevated in a rat model of intra-abdominal sepsis

[37]

tPA

Enhances bacterial clearance, reduces cellular influx, increases plasma and peritoneal IL-12 and IL-10 levels, and reduces lung and liver damage in a mouse model of intra-abdominal sepsis

[16]

TRAIL

Promotes inflammatory cell recruitment to the peritoneum, enhances bacterial clearance, and reduces mortality in a mouse model of intra-abdominal sepsis; modulates apoptosis

[41, 42]